Espejo Sideral

Introduction

Primary texts from various South Asian spiritual traditions allude to the possibility of perceiving sound or reverberation even in the absence of all conventionally identifiable auditory sensations, and some sources even provide instructions on using these phenomena as an object of meditation. The purpose of this article is to inquire whether similar references are found in traditional Buddhist texts. It is worth noting that the Tibetan traditions require a different sort of analysis and are not included in this article.

As a caveat, I would like to clarify that when I refer to “this phenomenon” I am not suggesting that it is exactly what is being described in other traditions, nor am I making any definitive epistemological, ontological or metaphysical assumptions. The expression should be understood as a compromise between the avoidance of attaching linguistic labels to something not perfectly understood, and pragmatic considerations to facilitate communication. Therefore, with the use of this term, I solely imply that a specific passage from a primary source appears to be related to the possibility of perceiving (or the actual perception of) sound or reverberation even in the absence of all conventionally identifiable auditory sensations. Delineating the contours of this phenomenon is a problematic task, but since my main interest here is not to undertake a comparative study across spiritual traditions, or to speculate about the nature of this phenomenon, I believe that the previous description serves as a rudimentary compass for the investigation. 

This being said, I plan to approach the following questions in relation to a few significant primary texts: (a) do the sources mention a similar phenomenon?; (b) is the capacity to perceive it said to be a result of meditative practice?; and (c) is meditation on this sound considered useful as a spiritual practice? 

I have decided to structure the paper as follows: (i) firstly, I identify the main texts analyzed in this research; (ii) second, I introduce two key concepts that might offer some clues about the nature and the capacity to perceive this phenomenon (according to the texts), as well as its role in the field of spiritual practice; and (iii) lastly, I present a few conclusions.

I. Main texts

I will draw elements from two main sources: (i) several suttas from the Pāli Canon (from theDīgha Nikāya and theMajjhima Nikāya), and (ii) theVisuddhimagga. Generally speaking, the former helped in the identification of important concepts that seem to denote auditory phenomena relevant to my research, and to get a sense of their role in the teachings of the Buddha according to the Pāli Canon. In addition to refining and systematizing some of these concepts, the Visuddhimagga proved useful because it also elaborates on the topic of practical meditation instructions connected to them.

II. Key concepts

I will refer to ten suttas from the Pāli canon: (i) the Mahāli Sutta (DN 6), (ii) the Sāmaññaphala Sutta (DN 2), (iii) the Dasuttara Sutta (DN 34), (iv) the Magandiya Sutta (MN 75), (v) the Lohicca Sutta (DN 12), (vi) Gopakamoggallana Sutta (MN 108), (vii) the Mahāsakuludāyi Sutta(MN 77), (viii) the Mahāvacchagotta Sutta(MN 73), and (ix) the Akankheyya Sutta (MN 6), and (x) the Kayagatasati Sutta (MN 119).

My starting point is the Mahāli Sutta (DN 6). In this sutta, Oṭṭhaddha Mahāli tells the Buddha that Sunakkhata had said: “Soon I shall have been a follower of the Lord for three years. I have seen heavenly sights, pleasant, delightful, enticing, but I have not heard any heavenly sounds that were pleasant, delightful, enticing.” Mahāli consequently asks the Buddha whether or not there are “any such heavenly sounds, which Sunakkhata cannot hear.” The Buddha immediately replies: “There are such sounds, Mahāli”. When Mahāli asks the reason why Sunakkhata cannot hear them, the Buddha answers that it is due to the nature of Sunakkhata’s samādhi. However, he soon clarifies that the perception of such phenomena is not the reason why monks follow his teachings, since there are “other things, higher and more perfect than these”. 

According to this sutta, the Buddha acknowledged the existence and possibility of perceiving this auditory phenomenon through the cultivation of specific kinds of samādhi. Although it is said that it is not for the sake of the realization of these samādhi states that monks follow the Buddha’s teachings, the question remains whether or not the cultivation of these states is considered useful as a means for advancing in the Noble Eightfold Path (for instance, as a tool for the development of concentration). The use of the expression “heavenly sounds” in this sutta might suggest a connection to the “divine ear-element” (dibba-sotadhātu), a traditional Buddhist concept to which I will now refer. The second sutta in my analysis is the Sāmaññaphala Sutta (DN 2). This sutta provides a sort of conceptual framework for understanding the nature and role of the divine ear-element in the Pāli canon. This sutta narrates how King Ajātasattu asks the Buddha if there are any visible rewards of the homeless life that he and his monastic followers lead. The Buddha proceeds to explain a series of fruits of the homeless life, each “more excellent and perfect than the previous one”, which in a sense could be said to reflect the stages of Buddhist training. At one point, after referring to the first four jhānas, the Buddha expounds how the concentrated mind might be applied and directed towards various aims, one of which is the divine ear-element (dibba-sotadhātu): 

“And he, with mind concentrated, [purified and cleansed, unblemished, free from impurities, malleable, workable, established, and having gained imperturbability,] applies and directs his mind to the divine ear. With the divine ear, purified and surpassing that of human beings, he hears sounds both divine and human, whether far or near.

Just as a man going on a long journey might hear the sound of a big drum, a small drum, a conch, cymbals, or a kettle-drum, and he might think: “That is a big drum, … a kettle-drum”, so the monk with the mind concentrated … hears sounds, divine or human, far or near. This is a fruit of the homeless life, more excellent and perfect than the former ones.”

After alluding to three more fruits of the monastic life, the list ends with the supreme attainment of the cessation of suffering. This enumeration of the last six fruits of the homeless life serves as the foundation for the category of the six abhiññā (kinds of super-knowledges or direct-knowledges), one of the many lists compiled in the Dasuttara Sutta (DN 34). Let us take a look at an academic dictionary to clarify the two key concepts I have mentioned so far (dibba-sotadhātu, and abhiññā as a broader category).

The divine ear (divyaśrotra in Sanskrit and dibbasota in Pali) is defined in the Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism thus: “lit. ‘divine ear,’ viz., ‘clairaudience’; one of the five (or six) superknowledges (abhijñā). With the divine ear, one can hear heavenly and earthly sounds both far and near just as if one were a divinity. This superknowledge is considered to be a mundane (laukika) achievement and is gained through refinement of the fourth stage of meditative absorption (dhyāna; rūpāvacaradhyāna).”

According to this dictionary, the first five of the six abhiññā are considered mundane (laukika) achievements, acquired through the refinement of the fourth stage of meditative absorption, and only the last one (liberation) is considered supramundane (lokottara), attainable through the cultivation of insight into the nature of reality (vipaśyanā). What are the implications of it being considered a mundane (laukika) achievement? The same dictionary defines this term as follows: “(…) “mundane” or “worldly”; anything pertaining to the ordinary world or to the practices of unenlightened sentient beings (pṛthagjana) in distinction from the noble ones (ārya), who have directly perceived reality.” This explanation seems to be in line with the Buddha’s words in the Mahāli Sutta (DN 6), where he is recorded as saying that there are higher and more perfect things than the perception of heavenly sounds.

Let us now very briefly turn our attention to seven additional suttas from the Pāli Canon that contain interesting allusions to the divine ear element, covering different aspects: how to obtain it, its place in the Buddha’s teachings, its role as a mark of a respectable teacher, and its use by the Buddha. Afterwards, a more detailed reference to the Visuddhimagga will allow us to advance towards a clearer and more comprehensive view of the topic.

The Magandiya Sutta (MN 75) narrates at one point how the Buddha overheard a distant conversation with the aid of the divine ear. The Lohicca Sutta (DN 12), which discusses the traits of good and bad spiritual teachers, states that if a pupil practices the moralities, guards the sense-doors, attains the four jhānas, and obtains the insights known under the category of the abhiññā, then his teacher “is not to be blamed in the world. [And if anyone blames that teacher, his blame is improper, untrue, not in accordance with reality, and faulty].” Thirdly, the Gopakamoggallana Sutta (MN 108) enumerates the “ten qualities inspiring confidence” said by the monk Ānanda to have been declared by the Buddha. The possession of these qualities by any person should inspire in the Sangha an attitude of honoring, respecting, revering and venerating that individual. These qualities include morality, mastery of the teachings of the Buddha, effortless attainment of the jhānas, as well as the six abhiññā. In the list of these ten qualities,the possession of the divine ear element occupies the sixth place. 

The Mahāsakuludāyi Sutta(MN 77) contains a concise recapitulation of many of the Buddha’s teachings. According to this sutta, the Buddha said that the fifth quality for which his disciples honor, respect, revere and venerate him is that he taught the way to develop wholesome states. The list of components of this way is long and detailed, but suffice it to say for our purposes that the divine ear element is mentioned as the fifteenth element in the way to develop wholesome states. Here, the Buddha is recorded as saying that he has proclaimed to his disciples the way to acquire the divine ear element, and that many of his disciples have thereby “reached the consummation and perfection of direct knowledge”. 

An example of an episode where the Buddha taught this to one of his disciples is found in the Mahāvacchagotta Sutta(MN 73): “To the extent that you may wish: “May I, with the divine ear element, which is purified and surpasses the human, hear both kinds of sounds, the divine and the human, those that are far as well as near’ – you will attain the ability to witness any aspect therein, there being a suitable basis”. The expression “suitable basis”, is a reference to development of “serenity and insight” as part of the higher Buddhist training, according to the same sutta. Another such example, not worth dwelling on because it does not add any new elements, is found in the Akankheyya Sutta (MN 6).

The tenth and last sutta I will refer to is the Kayagatasati Sutta (MN 119). This sutta is interesting because it alludes to the divine ear element in the context of detailed meditation instructions, as one of the ten benefits of having repeatedly cultivated and consolidated mindfulness of the body. Following a detailed description of the state of equanimity, and the reference to the effortless attainment of the jhanic states, the divine ear element is listed here along with the other five abhiññā.

Most suttas (except perhaps the Mahāli Sutta -DN 6-, cited first) appear to present the perception of this auditory phenomenon in a positive light. The Mahāli Sutta -DN 6-, simply seems to suggest that this is not the final aim of the spiritual path, but does not elaborate on the issue of whether concentration on this auditory phenomenon is useful or not for the development of concentration or any other similar purpose. Having reviewed these ten suttas from the Pāli Canon, I will complement this study with an analysis presented in the Visuddhimagga, before extracting a few general conclusions.

Chapter XII of the second part of the Visuddhimagga lists five kinds of mundane direct-knowledge (abhiññā-niddesa) considered benefits of developing concentration: (i) the kinds of supernormal power (iddhividha-niddesa), (ii) the divine ear element (dibba-sotadhātu), (iii) penetration of minds, (iv) recollection of past life, and (v) the divine eye – knowledge of passing away and reappearance of beings. These seem to correspond to five of the six abhiññā mentioned in the Dasuttara Sutta (DN 34): specifically, the five mundane (laukika) achievements in the sense explained by the Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, cited earlier. 

The specifics of the divine ear element are analyzed in detail in chapter XIII of the Second Part of the Visuddhimagga, beginning with a quote from the Dīgha Nikāya that appears to be taken from the Sāmaññaphala Sutta (already cited). Following this passage, the characteristics of the divine ear element are studied and commented upon:

“Herein, with the divine ear element: it is divine here because of its similarity to the divine; for deities have as the divine ear element the sensitivity that is produced by kamma consisting in good conduct and is unimpeded by bile, phlegm, blood, etc., and capable of receiving an object even though far off because it is liberated from imperfections. And this ear element consisting in knowledge, which is produced by the power of this bhikkhu’s energy in development, is similar to that, so it is ‘divine’ because it is similar to the divine. Furthermore, it is ‘divine’ because it is obtained by means of divine abiding and because it has divine abiding as its support. And it is an ‘ear element’ (sota-dhātu) in the sense of hearing (savana) and in the sense of being a soulless [element]. Also it is an ‘ear element’ because it is like the ear element in its performance of an ear element’s function”.

The previous passage accentuates the purified and highly sensitive nature of the divine ear element, which is said to be the product of the practitioner’s good conduct and “energy in development”, and understood to be rooted in divine abiding, which is probably a reference to the cultivation of the jhānas. The reference to the soulless quality of the divine ear element is, however, obscure. More information is then given about the capabilities of the individual who possesses the divine ear element: 

Which is purified: which is quite pure through having no imperfection. And surpasses the human: which in the hearing of sounds surpasses, stands beyond, the human ear element by surpassing the human environment.

He hears both kinds of sounds: he hears the two kinds of sounds. What two? The divine and the human: the sounds of deities and of human beings, is what is meant. This should be understood as partially inclusive. Those that are far as well as near: what is meant is that he hears sounds that are far off, even in another world-sphere, and those that are near, even the sounds of the creatures living in his own body. This should be understood as completely inclusive.” 

The references to the transcendence of the human hearing capabilities beyond the sounds of the “human environment” appear to have some connection to the auditory phenomenon that is the object of my research. There remains some obscurity in the reference to “the divine and the human” sounds as being “partially inclusive”, as opposed to the “completely inclusive” nature of of sounds “far as well as near”. What is certainly intriguing is the terse allusion to the sounds made by creatures living in one’s own body. Another short but apparently highly technical discussion on the object of the divine ear element is found later in the text:

 “Knowledge of the divine ear element occurs with respect to four kinds of object, that is to say, as having a limited, and a present, and an internal or external object. How? Since it makes sound its object and since sound is limited (see Vbh. 74), it therefore has a limited object. But since it occurs only by making existing sounds its object, it has a present object. At the time of hearing sounds in one’s own belly it has an internal object. At the time of hearing sounds of others it has an external object.” 

It is interesting to note that the same four kinds of object are mentioned concerning the divine eye. Curiously, the internal object of the divine eye is described as “At the time of seeing materiality inside one’s own belly, etc., it has an internal object. At the time of seeing another’s materiality it has an external object.”. I initially though that “hearing sounds in one’s own belly” meant listening to the sounds produced by the bodily organs and other physical components of the body. However, after reading the allusion to “seeing materiality inside one’s own belly”, one wonders if these are perhaps references to direct perception of one’s own subtle body. The citation of “Vibhaṅga 74” found in the original text, as well as the additional references to passages 62 and 91 of this same text, made in a footnote by the translator, does not offer much clarification.

In a general sense, it is said that the abhiññā-niddesa are obtained through the cultivation of the jhanic states, in line with some of the Pāli suttas cited earlier: “(…) by entering upon jhana as the basis for direct-knowledge and emerging from it, then the development of absorption concentration provides for them the benefit of the kinds of direct-knowledge, since it becomes the proximate cause for the kinds of direct-knowledge whenever there is an occasion.” Moreover, it is said elsewhere in the Visuddhimagga that practice of the ten kasinas are conditions for obtaining the kinds of direct-knowledge (abhiññā).

 Now, chapter XIII of the Second Part gives additional information in regard to the divine ear element specifically: one should attain the fourth jhāna and, emerging, concentrate on progressively subtler sounds in different directions. Both human sounds and other sounds of nature are considered suitable objects of concentration. Eventually, one should be able to concentrate on sounds such as the palm leaves drying in the sun or the sound of ants, as well as being able to clearly demarcate the limits of one’s field of hearing, beginning with a space of a single finger-breadth and progressively extending it by delimited stages up “to the [limit of the] world-sphere, or even more.”. The divine ear element is thus consolidated:

“One who has reached direct-knowledge in this way hears also by means of direct-knowledge without re-entering the basic jhana any sound that has come within the space touched by the basic jhana’s object. And in hearing in this way, even if there is an uproar with sounds of conches,   drums, cymbals, etc., right up to the Brahmā-world he can, if he wants to, still define each one thus, ‘This is the sound of conches, this is the sound of drums’.” 

Thus far we have reviewed several passages of the Visuddhimagga that deal with the defining characteristics of the divine ear element and the means of acquiring it. Finally, we arrive at the difficult question of whether or not the divine ear element is considered useful in the context of spiritual practice. The Ten Impediments to the development of concentration (samādhi) are mentioned in chapter III of the second part (on Samādhi) of the Visuddhimagga, which deals with the topic of taking a meditation subject. The last of these ten impediments is said to be supernormal powers. Apparently, the remaining four kinds of direct-knowledge (abhiññā-niddesa), including the divine ear element, would not be considered impediments as such. 

III. Conclusions

Three general questions were presented in the introduction: (a) do the sources mention a similar auditory phenomenon?; (b) is the capacity to perceive it said to be a result of meditative practice?; and (c) is meditation on this sound considered useful as a spiritual practice? 

This article was meant to be an introductory approach to the study of the auditory phenomenon described in the introduction. As such, a representative number of suttas from the Pāli Canon were studied without any pretense of being an exhaustive review of the subject. This preliminary analysis made possible the identification two key categories that seem to be connected to this auditory phenomenon: the general category of the kinds of direct-knowledge (abhiññā)and the concept of the divine ear element (dibba-sotadhātu). Another source of the Mainstream Buddhist, the Visuddhimagga, offered additional elements helpful to refine my understanding of these two notions.

Concerning the second issue, one could venture to say that the capacity to perceive non-conventional auditory phenomena is considered in these texts to be a result of meditative practice. The cultivation of the fourth jhāna is emphasized, but I have also found an allusion to the kasinas. It should be noted, however, that the references to the acquisition of the kinds of direct-knowledge are frequently preceded essential training in morality and framed in the general context of the multifaceted system of Buddhist teachings.

Finally, it is not possible to offer here a clear conclusion vis-à-vis the role of the divine ear element in the field of spiritual practice. Especially in the Pāli suttas, it is often mentioned as a sort of stepping-stone in the path to enlightenment, but it is unclear whether this is understood as being helpful for a specific purpose, such as developing concentration.

Another source that might contain novel insights is the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, an important text of Mahāyāna orientation, as well as sources belonging to the Tibetan tradition, not examined in this article.

NOTES

1.  Walshe, Maurice. The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995, p. 144.
2.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 144.
3.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 144.
4.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 144-145.
5.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 144-145.
6.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 93.
7.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 105.
8.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 107-108.
9.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 516.
10.  Buswell, Robert E., et al. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press, 2014. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46n41q p. 261-262.
11. Buswell, Robert E., et al. Op. Cit., p. 8-9.
12. Buswell, Robert E., et al. Op. Cit., p. 467-468.
13.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications in association with the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies, 1995, p. 608.
14.  Walshe, Maurice. Op. Cit., p. 184-185.
15.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 883.
16.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 636, 647.
17.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 644.
18.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 600.
19.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 600.
20.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 116.
21.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 957.
22. Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Seattle: BPE Pariyatti Editions, 1999, p. 369.
23.  Although the reference given is “D.i,79”, I believe this might be a mistake. The Brahmajāla Sutta is the first text of the Dīgha Nikāya, but it does not contain any allusions to this topic. Instead, this seems to be a quotation from the second sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya, the Sāmaññaphala Sutta (already cited), which contains the most extensive allusions to the divine ear element I have been able to find in the Pāli Canon.
24.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 402.
25.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 402.
26.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 426-427.
27.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 430.
28.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 803, n. 23.
29.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 367. Similarly, Ibid., p. 402.
30.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 113.
31.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 402-404.
32.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 402, 372-373.
33.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 403.
34.  Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 403-404.
35.  Strictly speaking, the supernormal powers would be impediments for insight, not for concentration: “Supernormal powers are the supernormal powers of the ordinary man. They are hard to maintain, like a prone infant or like young corn, and the slightest thing breaks them. But they are an impediment for insight, not for concentration, since they are obtainable through concentration. So the supernormal powers are an impediment that should be severed by one who seeks insight; the others are impediments to be severed by one who seeks concentration.” Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. Op. Cit., p. 97.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Buswell, Robert E., et al. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press, 2014. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46n41q

Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Seattle: BPE Pariyatti Editions, 1999.

Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku, and Bodhi, Bhikku. The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications in association with the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies, 1995.

Walshe, Maurice. The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995.